Resist: Tie Dye Practices from Around the World
Resist dyeing refers to various techniques for preventing dye from permeating certain areas of a textile to create a pattern. In the wax resist method, liquid wax or a starchy paste is applied freehand, or with stamps or stencils, to the textile surface. In the shaped resist method, the cloth is manipulated through folding, tying, twisting, and binding. This exhibition celebrates the many types of shaped resist that have been practiced for thousands of years across the world.
Shaped resist dyeing is a magical process. Complex patterns emerge after the dyeing has occurred and the cloth is opened. Scholar and textile artist Yoshiko Iwamoto Wada has referred to shaped resist as “memories on cloth” because the patterns reflect the artisan’s hands and movements.1 Since no two artisans fold or bind in the same way, every resist-dyed cloth is unique.
Wada and other scholars suggest two potential theories for the development and spread of resist dyeing across the world. First, practices of resist dyeing may have developed spontaneously and independently in separate regions, including India, China, and Peru. Alternatively, resist-dyed textiles and the knowledge to produce them may have spread through migration and trade networks, such as the Silk Roads connecting China through Eurasia to the Mediterranean. Regardless of its genesis and development, resist dyeing occupies an important place in the textile traditions of numerous cultures around the world. As such, the ties and folds of the resist process can be thought of as “the ties that bind” cultures across time and place.
This exhibition is not intended as a comprehensive overview of resist dyeing. Rather, it spotlights eight regional practices that are represented in the collection of the Avenir Museum of Design and Merchandising. Where possible, text for individual regions draws attention to the connections between regional practices. As you move through the exhibition, you are encouraged to look for similarities and connections between different textile objects.
[1] See Yoshiko Iwamoto Wada, Memories on Cloth: Shibori Now (New York: Kodansha USA, 2002).
Bandhani: India
The term bandhani comes from the Sanskrit banda, meaning “to tie, to bind.” This practice primarily involves plucking small sections of cloth that are wound tightly with thread to form a bind. The bind prevents dye from permeating this area, leading to a distinctive dot or ring with a central voided area. Dots may be arranged to create specific patterns or motifs. Historically, the value of bandhani was determined by the small size and density of the dots. These markers reflected the skill of the artisan and the quality of the cloth; finer cotton muslin or silk allow for precise and tight binding.
Bandhani production historically has been centered in the northwest region of the Indian subcontinent, not far from the Indus River Valley where cotton cultivation and dyeing were practiced as early as 4000 BCE. Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra that date from c. 500-600 CE depict a dotted cloth believed to be bandhani. Today, the centers of bandhani production are located in the provinces of Rajasthan and Gujarat where professional artisans work with cotton, wool, and silk. Bandhani may be purchased with the binds still intact. This allows the client to experience the magical moment when the ties are removed and the pattern is revealed.
Ikat: Indonesia
Numerous resist-dyeing techniques are employed in the Republic of Indonesia. These include the stitch resist technique called tritik, the shaped resist technique called plangi, and the pre-weaving dyeing technique called ikat.
The term ikat is derived from the Malay-Indonesian word mengikat, meaning “to tie” or ‘to bind.” In this technique, the undyed warp and/or weft yarns are bundled into sections and tightly bound at differing intervals with materials that resist dye permeation. Traditionally, binds were made from strips of palm, banana leaf, or vine. Contemporary artisans utilize synthetic threads to block the dye. The bound yarns are then submerged in a series of dye baths. The binds are released and retied throughout the dyeing process according to a pre-planned design. Finally, the yarns are woven using a backstrap or frame loom. The weaving process reveals a carefully planned design as blurry and feathery-edged botanical, animal, geometric, and human motifs magically appear on the cloth.
Ikat refers to both the process of creating the cloth and the finished product. It is used internationally to refer to the technique regardless of cultural or regional origin. Ikat techniques are utilized across the world and are thought to have developed independently in at least three separate areas: South China, India, and Peru. Scholars believe that ikat production in Indonesia dates to the Bronze Age.
As a result of the labor-intensive process, ikat cloth is culturally, spiritually, and ceremonially significant in Indonesia. It symbolizes religious affiliations, social relationships, political associations, occupations, and trade. Historically, ikat production was carried out by women. This created a spiritual association that informs the continued practice of ikat textiles being gifted during marriage and birth rituals.
Abr: Uzbekistan
Cities in the landlocked nation of Uzbekistan in Central Asia were important centers along the Silk Roads trade network. Due to the prominence of Iranian merchants in these trade centers, Persian cultural influence characterized the region. This influence continued after the region was incorporated into growing Islamic territory in the 8th century. Since then, Uzbekistan experienced significant political change, including the invasion of the Mongols in the 1220s, incorporation into the Timurid dynasty (1370-1506), the Uzbek period (1510-1876), and incorporation into the Russian empire in 1876.
Due to this political instability, along with the location of Uzbekistan along the Silk Roads and the nomadic past of Turkic tribes, textiles are extremely significant in Uzbek culture. Wealth was often invested and accumulated through portable items, such as jewelry and textiles. In the 19th century, it was common for the wealthy to wear 5 to 6, and even up to 10, layers of robes made from vibrantly patterned silk ikat, known regionally as abr, the Farsi word for “cloud.” Ikat textiles likely arrived in Central Asia through Islamic trading networks after the 8th century. See the “Indonesia” panel for a description of ikat techniques.
In the 19th century, the production of abr flourished. Silk production was part of the domestic labor performed by women, while dyeing and weaving was carried out by men in a well-organized guild system that employed a division of labor along ethnic lines. Velvet abr was introduced in the late 19th century. To create the loops that give velvet its distinctive texture, the amount of warp (vertical) thread required is up to 6 times the amount of a non-velvet weave. Velvet was extremely costly and, therefore, was an indication of the wearer’s status.
The production and meaning of abr changed significantly in the 1920s and 1930s when Uzbekistan fell under the rule of Soviet Union. Its longstanding association with wealth and status was incompatible with Soviet ideals of equality. Between 1927 and 1929, all abr workshops in the city of Bukhara were closed. Abr production shifted to factories where designs, materials (often synthetic), and labor could be regulated. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, there has been a revival of naturally-dyed silk abr production in Bukhara. Many of the flat textiles in this section date from the post-Soviet period.
Amarra and Watay: Peru
Numerous examples of resist-dyed textiles have survived in the dry conditions of ancient burial sites in present-day Peru and Chile. Resist-dyed thread dating to approximately 890 BCE was excavated in an archaeological site in the Camarones region of Chile. The earliest known examples of woven textiles demonstrating resist dyeing date to at least 700-400 BCE and are representative of the Chavín and Paracas cultures. These textiles are sometimes referred to as amarra, a term derived from the Quechua verb amarrar, meaning “to tie up”. Motifs produced by this tie and dye technique are reminiscent of the dot-in-square motif present in the Japanese shaped-resist technique called shibori. In the Peruvian context, amarra patterns are evocative of the elaborate stonework of the region’s ancient civilizations.
In addition to amarra, a pre-weaving resist dye technique called watay, meaning “attachment” in the Quechua language, has been identified in pre-Incan textiles. Watay textiles are produced using the ikat technique, where threads are bound according to a pre-planned pattern before dyeing. The bind prevents the dye from permeating the threads below. It is unknown whether the watay technique developed indigenously or as a result of trade. Some scholars have suggested links to India and Southeast Asia. Others believe that Spanish colonial conquest led to the technique being adapted to garments forcibly introduced by the colonizers, such as the paño shawl.
Shibori: Japan
The history of resist-dyed textiles in Japan dates to the 8th century. In 749, the Emperor Shōmu abdicated the throne and took religious vows. Following his death in 756, the Empress donated her late husband’s possessions to Tōdai-ji, the great Buddhist temple at Nara. A wooden storehouse on the temple grounds was designed specifically to protect the Emperor’s possessions from the humid climate. The resist-dyed textiles found amongst the approximately 8000 objects in the storehouse are believed to be the earliest existing examples of resist-dyed textiles in Japan. However, it is unlikely that these textiles were made in Japan. Instead, scholars believe that they arrived in Japan through exchange with China, where resist dyeing was likely introduced from India via the Silk Roads trade network.
According to textile artist and scholar Yoshiko Iwamoto Wada, there is no English equivalent to the Japanese word shibori. The term encompasses numerous techniques of shaped resist, many of which have no satisfactory English translation. Kanoko (plucking and binding), miura (looped binding used a hooked needle), kumo (pleating, twisting, and binding), nui (stitch resist), and arashi (wrapping around a pole) are the primary shibori techniques. Sometimes itajime, which uses a clamp, is also included as a sixth technique.
Scholars credit innovation in techniques with so-called “folk shibori.” Early modern sumptuary laws prohibited farmers, artisans, and merchants from wearing silks, the colors red and purple, gold embroidery, stenciling, and kanoko shibori. As a result, indigo-dyed hemp, and later cotton, were the materials that drove the development of new techniques. Shibori artisans often take inspiration from patterns found in the natural world, such as maple leaves, meandering mountain paths, and the softly curling lines of wood grain.
Printed or Dyed?
In the 18th and 19th centuries, developments in textile printing technologies coincided with increased global exchange through colonial conquest and trade networks. This led to European colonial powers repeatedly replicating textile techniques from cultures of the Global South using industrial manufacturing methods. The efficiency of machine printing—now utilized in industrial textile manufacturing around the world—is a threat to the time-consuming and labor-intensive processes of resist dyeing. This section features “imitation” patterns that are printed, rather than dyed. Printed patterns, with their perfect uniformity, lack the unique traces of the artisan’s hands.
“DIY”: Euro-America
Tie-dye in Euro-American fashion is commonly associated with the hippie movements of the late 1960s and 1970s. The fully tie-dyed ensemble that Janis Joplin wore while performing at Woodstock in 1969 clearly announced this association. During this period, Rit, a fabric dye company, marketed do-it-yourself (DIY) tie-dye as an affordable means of personal expression. The taglines “I didn’t buy it – I dyed it” and “It’s an original ‘me.’ I tie-dyed it with Rit!” ran in advertisements from 1968 and 1972 respectively. In the context of youth movements and increasing environmental awareness, DIY tie-dye was marketed as a product of the time.
However, the practice of Euro-American DIY tie-dye predates the late 1960s. A book called The Charm of Color, published by the Monroe Chemical Company in 1928, included a section titled “The Art of Tied Dyeing” that provided instructions for various techniques. With the economic hardship of the Great Depression, tie-dye was a thrifty way to revive used garments. The Science History Institute notes that few DIY tie-dyed textiles from this period still have vivid coloration due to the lack of fade resistance in the dyes commonly used.1
After largely being relegated to summer camp and birthday party activities, DIY tie-dye flourished in 2020 when many were seeking activities to pass time at home during the Covid-19 pandemic. Embracing the unpredictability that comes with tie-dye offered a therapeutic escape during a time of heightened anxiety and hardship for many. Sweatsuits, a popular comfortable fashion choice during lockdowns, were particularly prominent materials for DIY tie-dyeing. With the increased prominence of tie-dye in popular culture, many fashion designers and mass-market manufacturers incorporated tie-dye into their collections. While some used “authentic” tie-dyed fabrics, others used machine printing technology to replicate the look of tie-dye, thus demonstrating the continued narrative of imitation techniques in the global history and practice of resist dyeing.
[1] Elisabeth Berry Drago, “Fit to Be Dyed: The Enduring Appeal of Tie-Dye,” Science History Institute, September 7, 2021: https://sciencehistory.org/stories/magazine/fit-to-be-dyed.
Jaspe: Guatemala
Jaspe is a resist-dyed textile in which threads are dyed before weaving to produce patterns across the warp, weft, or both. This technique is known as ikat in other parts of the world. Jaspe is also the Spanish word for the stone jasper. Indeed, the blurry lines and interplay of colors in jaspe textiles are similar to the veins and variegation that run through jasper stones.
Jaspe cloth is often worn as a corte, the skirt that is part of Maya women’s traje or traditional dress. Fashionable motifs, colors, and patterns for jaspe cortes vary regionally and reflect the cultural diversity of Guatemala, which is home to over 24 distinct ethnic groups. For example, the city of Chichicastenango is known for a bold weft-faced jaspe used to create cortes with decorative seaming called randas. The city of Salcaja is associated with a specialized type of jaspe called labor. This warp-ikat technique expands on the geometric or linear motifs of standard jaspe by adding figural motifs such as water jars, humans, botanicals, and animals. In Salcaja, artisans in the highly skilled position of amarrador (the person who ties jaspe) are celebrated for their dexterous fingers.
A single jaspe textile is typically produced by multiple artisans, each with a highly specialized role. Due to the involvement of multiple artisans, jaspe production is often oriented as a family business. Historically, textile weaving was carried out by women on a backstrap loom. Following Spanish colonial conquest in the early 16th century, weaving practices were transformed along binary gender lines. In Spain, a guild system restricted work in the textile industry to men. As a result, in areas under Spanish colonial rule only men were taught to weave on the treadle looms introduced by the colonizers. Despite the colonizers’ attempts to repress Indigenous cultures, the backstrap loom remains an important tool in Guatemalan textile production today and is represented in this section of the exhibition.
Àdìrẹ: Yoruba Peoples
Since at least the 19th century, the Yoruba peoples of southwest Nigeria, Benin, and Togo have produced indigo-dyed cloth using various resist techniques. The word àdìrẹ means “to tie” (adi) and “to dye” (re) and was first used in the early 20th century. There are four distinct techniques of àdìrẹ. First, oniko, where raffia is used to bind folded or pinched fabric. Second, alábẹ́rẹ́, which uses hand- or machine-stitched raffia to resist the dye. Third, eléso, in which seeds and pebbles are tied into the cloth. Fourth, elẹ́kọ, where a starchy paste (historically made from corn or cassava) is applied free-hand or using a stencil. This section of the exhibition features the three shaped resist techniques: oniko, alábẹ́rẹ́, and eléso.
Historically, the skills and knowledge to produce àdìrẹ were passed on generationally between women family members. In the 1920s, an influx of European cotton shirting material that absorbed dye well led to an increase in in the production of àdìrẹ. European synthetic dyes were also introduced in this period but were initially rejected by àdìrẹ artisans. At this time, àdìrẹ cloth was typically used to make women’s wrappers and men’s sleepwear.
As Rosalyn A. Walker, former director of the National Museum of African Art, explains: “prior to the 1960s àdìrẹ was commonly made by women who had no formal education and spoke only Yoruba. Therefore, “to the educated classes who were evolving with the context of British colonialism, àdìrẹ, traditional clothing and the makers represented backwardness.”1 This association changed in the 1960s when àdìrẹ cloth was embraced by young men who incorporated it into other garments, such as shirts, which were worn publicly. Some scholars suggest that the increased popularity of àdìrẹ in the 1960s led to the adoption of tie-dyed indigo cloth by members of the hippie movements in the United States.
[1] Rosalyn A. Walker, “Five Fragments of African Textile History,” in Africa Fashion, ed. Christine Checinska (London: V&A Publishing, 2022), 52.